Friends Essay Example for Free

Friends EssayA friend is someone who is helpful and kind. A friend is someone who you hump and worry and who likes you too. A friend is not an enemy. I have many different friends. Friends at school, at church, at sports and even overseas. Friends argon special to me. Today, I want to share with you why friends such as all of you, are important to me. BodyFirstly, friends provide me with support and courage. They laugh with me when I am happy. They embolden me on when I am in a race. When I win, they celebrate with me. For example, last year, at the Athletics Carnival, we all supported each other in our races. Friends cheer me up when I am sad. They try to make me laugh by entertaining me or tickling me out of my sadness. When I am anguish or feel sick, they care for me.When I have a problem or when I am struggling, they help me out. For example, when I lost my school don last year, Hannah and Luke helped me look for it after school. I had searched for it everywhere and was ready to give up. But then, Luke spotted a hat which had been blown way out into the egg-shaped by the wind. He ran to pick it up and thankfully, it was my missing hat. I do not feel afraid or lonely at school because of my friends. I know they will stand up for me if I get bullied and they will stay by my side. Secondly, friends help me learn and try new things and ideas.Conclusion Friends are important to me. They support me, help me learn and most importantly, are honest with me and care for me. I think it is important that we treat our friends well, with respect and kindness, just like how they treat us. I am thankful for the many wonderful friends I have here at my Public School .

Effect of Bilingualism on Ageing and the Brain

Effect of Bilingualism on ripening and the BrainNurAisyah Binte YussofIn Wileys ledger article, he states that speaking two languages benefits the develop humor. He presents his ideas, arguments and analysis with supporting evidence from epidemiological study by Dr. Bak and colleagues from the Centre for cognitive Aging and Cognitive Epidemiology at the University of Edinburgh. This critical review will examine another three different articles on this issue and would evaluate its contents based on the laying claim from Wileys article. Although Wiley had excluden his point, his article might be biased and contains some misinterpretation of data coming from only one source of look to prove his point that bilingualism benefits the aging mindset. Thus, the other research studies to support his ideology.In the first paragraph of Wileys diary article, he stated that bilingualism is thought to improve acquaintance and delay dementia in older adults. This conclusion is based on the data from the study of the Lothian Birth Cohort 1936 undertaken by The University of Edinburgh Centre for Cognitive Ageing and Cognitive Epidemiology, part of the cross council Lifelong Health and Wellbeing Initiative (MR/K026992/1). The results from this study indicate that those who spoke two or more languages had significantly break cognitive abilities compared to what would be expected from their baseline. Wiley, as supported by the research study determines that bilingualism has a positive effect on cognition and may tedious bolt down cognitive decline from aging. The research done proved that acquiring a second language, even as an adult may benefit the aging brain.Bilingualism allows the brain to respond more rapidly to the conditions that placed greater demands on the working memory. Stagnant use of the brain monolinguals, would result in the brain to unwind down and be more prone to effects of aging. Cognitive abilities are better when the language sphere is used more often thus, increasing the esteem of brain functions. Distinguished Professor of Psychology from Penn State Judith Kroll stated that Bilingual speakers can outperform monolinguals (people who speak only one language) in certain psychical abilities, such as editing out irrelevant information and focusing on important information. Bilingual speakers may benefit and perform better in tasks such as multi-tasking and also have an advantage in attention and cognitive control which will have long-term benefits. Increasing use of these systems slows down aging and also deters sickness such as dementia and also Alzheimers.These three articles from Ellen Bialystok, American Academy of Neurology and Universtat Jaume I, acknowledged the fact that bilingualism benefits the aging brain.In the book from Ellen Bialystok Bilingualism in development language, literacy and cognition, she explained that bilingualism involves language proficiency which consisted of two cognitive processes, analysis of representational structure and control of attention. These cognitive processes would determine proficiency finished the degree of involvement and mental representations that refers to the process of explicit structure and organization of information represented with knowledge. Language proficiency is the ability to function in a situation that is defined by specific cognitive and linguistic demands, to a level of performance indicated by either objective criteria or normative standards.The journal article by the American Academy of Neurology (AAN) states that Speaking more than one language is thought to lead better development of areas of the brain that accost executive functions and attention tasks, which may help protect from the onset of dementia.In addition, the journal article from Universitat Jaume I states that, bilinguals use the left inferior anterior lobe, the Brocas area, to respond to stimuli where executive functions are performed (such as ordering forms by colour or shape), whereas monolinguals use the right part to respond to the same stimuli.Findings are very(prenominal) important because they show an unknown aspect of bilingualism, which goes beyond linguistic advantages, and they also show bilinguals are more effective in responding to certain stimuli, explains researcher Cesar Avila, who ensures the research shows that bilingualism does not only have effects on the brain at a linguistic level, but that it also works differently, emphasizing the importance of introducing languages at an early age because it generates cognitive benefits.All of these sources, with supporting evidence links back to the main article that we studied, whereby it is strongly believed that bilingualism would benefit the aging brain. These articles contain interchangeable arguments about how language and use of cognitive process are inter-related. With the brain performing cognitive processes while a bilingual person speaks, it would increase brain activities w hich in turn would benefit aging brain to not be vulnerable to sickness such as dementia or Alzheimers unhealthiness referable to frequent activities in the brain. In an American Academy of Neurology study, stagnant use of brain, such as monolinguals, would increase the risk of one create a sickness four and a half years before bilinguals.Although believed that bilingualism will benefit the aging brain, cognitive functions due bilingualism, that slow down due to aging can be fine tuned and maintained in other ways as well. It is measured by the efficiency level of our brain as we age. For example, being physically active produces positive effects on many cognitive functions, such as memory, attention, information processing and problem solving. Cognitive abilities in an aging brain could still be active as it was in the youth through spatial attention which is critical in many aspects of our effortless lives. According to the research from Dr Joanna Brooks, certain types of cogn itive systems in the right cerebral hemisphere, are encapsulated and may be protected from aging. Thus, bilingualism would not be the only factor that would benefit the aging brain.This critical review examines the findings of Wiley and a few other research studies to determine if bilingualism would benefit the aging brain. Being supported by well-nigh studies, Wileys statement is credible. However, bilingualism, being the only factor would not be strong enough to benefit the aging brain. Cognitive abilities, such as the biologically organized mental structure in the brain known as the Language Acquisition Device facilitates the learning of a language and allows the rapid cognitive activity which will also benefit the aging brain. Wileys article misleads readers and focuses attention only on bilingualism while ignoring other factors that will also travel or benefit the aging brain.1029 words.ReferencesAssociation for Psychological Science. (2010, November 9). Bilingual benefits r each beyond communication. ScienceDaily. Retrieved October 12, 2014 from www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/11/101109113028.htmBialystok, E. (2001). Bilingualism in Development Language, Literacy, and Cognition. United Kingdom, Cambridge Cambridge University Press.Concordia University. (2013, January 16). Language mixing in children growing up bilingual. ScienceDaily. Retrieved October 12, 2014 from www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/01/130116123641.htmDuke-NUS Graduate Medical School Singapore. (2014, July 1). The less older adults sleep, the faster their brains age, new study suggests. ScienceDaily. Retrieved October 11, 2014 from www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/07/140701091458.htmIthaca College. (2013, July 15). Bilingual children have a two-tracked mind. ScienceDaily. Retrieved October 12, 2014 from www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/07/130715151106.htmNorthwestern University. (2014, folk 2). Community music programs enhance brain function in at-risk children. ScienceDaily. Retrieved October 12, 2014 from www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/09/140902205335.htmPenn State. (2011, February 21). Juggling languages can build better brains. ScienceDaily. Retrieved October 12, 2014 from www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/02/110218092529.htmSuomen Akatemia (Academy of Finland). (2014, February 5). Links explored between physical activity, learning. ScienceDaily. Retrieved October 12, 2014 from www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/02/140205091550.htmUme universitet. (2012, April 27). Maintain your brain The secrets to aging success. ScienceDaily. Retrieved October 11, 2014 from www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/04/120427163335.htmUniversitat Jaume I. (2010, July 7). Bilingualism associated with brain reorganization involving better efficiency in executive functions, research finds. ScienceDaily. Retrieved October 12, 2014 from www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/07/100707065139.htmWiley. (2014, June 2). Speaking two languages benefits the aging brain. ScienceDaily . Retrieved October 12, 2014 from www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/06/140602101204.htm

Definition of Europe in the 21st Century

Definition of Europe in the twenty-first CenturyEurope is ringed from Kalingrad in the North, to the Caucasus and Central Asia, to the Balkans by an electric discharge of danger and instability. (EU Commissi atomic number 53r for external relations Christopher Patten, July 2001).Does this mean that at the present time Europe and the European are one and the same thing?IntroductionThe European or EU citizen is at the present time becoming synonymous with the definition of the point to where the continent of Europe extends. This seems to be the case with the present reply to enlargement and the focus on crime from outside the borders of the EU and the fears of crime from the newly integrated countries and from those countries that ring the EU. Enlargement leave behind illustrate the new tiered system in the EU, the newly ascended countries from post-Communist countries, which are viewed as not truly European. Therefore this discussion leave alone illustrate how the definition of what Europe is in the 21st Century has been narrowed from the expanse of the European continent to the membership of the EU whereby countries are aiming to join this policy-making unit in order to gain authenticity within the global political and economic structure.Enlargement A Case Study of a Narrow Definition of EuropeEnlargement of the EU is a mixed blessing, because on one hand it is helping to achieve a status of stability and cohesion byout the region. On the other hand, there are concerns that in making the Union larger impart in fact de-stabilize the region. This is due to prejudice of certain groups which would have free access in the region, one such group are the Roma Gypsy migrants from Slovakia. In the past few months the newspapers have displayed the concerns of the British public and politicians about these migrants when the nation joins the EU. Therefore this introduces the dubiousness whether the EU really respects the integrity of cultural difference? Other problems include the possible de-stabilizing of the economy by incorporating smaller, less affluent countries marginal and warfare torn countries and transitional countries. These countries could also cause the EU problems in regard to its unique approach of ensuring cohesiveness by using the eclipse of righteousness, because if the EU gets similarly large it may not be possible any longer to ensure its political and legal stability. Therefore the consistency and coherence that the rule of law ensures is no longer apparent due to the sheer size of the Union. Another problem lies in the fact that smaller nations may not have the legal, political and economic clout to ensure that their agenda is considered. Although previously it has been mentioned that the EUs rule of law acts as a check and balance to more powerful nations, in trueness the original countries in the EU were mainly ex-colonial empires. The newer nations that are joining the EU are akin to colonies of a colonial po wer, therefore there is an inherent imbalance in the Union.However in response to the negative effects of the possible de-stabilization of the region, one must consider that in order to join the Union all(prenominal) nation must have fulfilled the Copenhagen Criteria. This criterion states that each joining nation must be Be a stable democracy, respecting human rights, the rule of law, and the protection of minorities have a functioning market economy adopt the common rules, standards and policies that make up the body of EU law. The EU paints a very(prenominal) enthusiastic picture of enlargement, where the only outcome of enlargement is beneficial. In truth this is a very lopsided picture because of the public outcry against the possible immigration into the original EU states. This can be seen in the article by Cathy Newman in the Financial Times Britain will throw open its doors to workers from the former commie countries joining the European Union on May 1, but those that refuse to get a job will be denied benefits and thrown out, the political science has assure Tony Blair after months of pressure from the Tories and the right wing press over fears of an influx of immigrants from the former Soviet bloc vowed If they cant support themselves, they will be invest out of the country. This article illustrates the problems that have occurred within one nation over the policy of enlargement. Although the enlargement is supposed to bring together the European region, the public prospect of at least one EU nation is resisting the enlargement, in relation to economic migrants migrants which the nation has traditionally refused asylum applications. However these fears may be unused because as Kraus Schwager argue that increased migration from East to West EU countries would only occur under the fear of rejection to Union membership. In fact they argue that the EUs expansion will have a beneficial effect on the economy of these smaller nations and thi s will result in a boost of their economies and job market, consequently reducing the amount of migrants from East to West. The conclusion of their article they state that Policy makers who are, for whatever reason, reluctant to accept large numbers of immigrants should not feel churning with enlargement. On the contrary, the prospect of joining the EU may well reduce immigration. The economic and social benefits which probably accrue to Eastern Europe from accession should be presented as a means to reducing the incentives to emigrate. Policies which enhance convergence of income levels in eastern and Western Europe, such as the internal market and, possibly, Structural currency should be promoted. .. In this process, diverging interests of major EU members have created substantial uncertainty about the date and conditions of accession. It is quite plausible that such uncertainty has brocaded the fear among potential migrants that accession may fail or be postponed for a long ti me. According to our result, this may have increased immediate immigration. Thus, if immigration is not desirable, for future accession rounds a straightforward and predictable negotiation process is to be recommended. Hence Kraus Schwager argue that the fears of the right, which have been fed to the public through the media, concerning immigration from the East that will de-stabilize the economy, have no place. This is because the possible migrants would prefer to stay in their homeland with a stronger and growing economy rather than kick the bucket to another nation. However, although these fears may be unfounded the resistance to these new citizens from the Eastern Europe illustrates the possible de-stabilization of the EU politically. In addition to this it causes problems legally because the cornerstone and the singularity of the EU lies within the rule of law and one of the most important laws that is upheld is the Free Movement of EU Citizens, which includes their ability t o trade, reside and work in parting of the EU. Yet, the accession of the new Eastern European nations has heralded blocks to this ability by many of the original and major EU players. In the UK it has caused a debate because the government was going to allow a free movement of possible immigrants but this has been resisted by the right, as well as members of the public. This is illustrated by the arguments of Michael Howard, leader of the nonprogressive company Mr Howard, seeking to make political capital out of Labours discomfort on the issue, will accuse the Government of complacency over the implications of the EUs expansion in May. This comes as the Government sought to play down fears that Britain would be flooded by migrants seeking work in more prosperous parts of the EU. During a high-profile prognosticate to Burnley, the scene of race riots in2001, Mr Howard will demand that Britain copy the transitional arrangements adopted by Germany and France to prevent citizens from new EU members from working there. Mr Howard will say The Conservative Party has always supported the enlargement of the EU to take in the former communist countries of Eastern Europe. We continue to do so. But he will continue Almost every other country in the EU has quite rightly taken the precaution of putting in place transitional arrangements to deal with immigration from the accession countries. It is still not too late for the British Government to put in place transitional arrangements as well. If we were in government, we would do so. The Government has approached this problem in typical fashion. First it failed to address it, then it ignored it, now it is claiming to face up to it. In short the cohesiveness that the EU has claimed will occur with the enlargement has not happened in the expected manner. Ever since enlargement there have been a greater amount of problems combating create crime, because of decreased security, corruption of public officials in favour of no nionised crime groups in the newly acceded nations and the breaches of human rights in arrests. Therefore this creates problems for combating organized crime with all prisoners being let off on technicalities, the vastness of places to hide decreasing the effectiveness of policing or the police not interested in fighting organized crime. Kennedy has commented that the EU is committed to justly and fairly fighting organized crime within the realms of human rights and justice however its weakness is that it relies only on specialized domestic member state intelligence We are being told that Europol and Eurojust the new European body to strengthen collaboration between justice ministries and prosecution services- will only act on specific intelligence. This is to rely on the integrity of the state and its officials It also means relying on the intelligence of other countries and, as I have said before, we have no idea about how this may be collected and by what standards. Justice do es not permit shortcuts, but governments will readily pursue quick and dirty solutions to problems if not kept under scrutiny. Therefore by purely relying on only specific intelligence this will reduce the effectiveness of the fight against organized crime, especially when there is the added problem of corrupt post-communist regimes that have joined the EU after enlargement whereby the true European, i.e. the EU citizen needs to be protected especially those original member states which define the true Europe.

The Evolution Of Rhetoric In The Electronic Age

The Evolution Of elaborateness In The Electronic AgeThe reason for this research paper is to discuss the future grandiloquence of our sassy Electronic Generation. cajolery is an art of public speaking and, in our day and age, electronics play a major part. This paper will explain the grandiosityal aspects of this potential transformation into an every(prenominal) electronic world. The information of this paper will explain the history of rhetoric and how we got to where we are today. It will also speak of some(a) the major philosophers about this flip-flop in our new generation.Rhetoric is defined as the art or study of using language effectively and persuasively. From ancient Greece to the late nineteenth atomic number 6, it was an indispensable part of Western education to teach public speakers and writers to persuade listeners to action with arguments. At the turn of the 20th century, there was a profound interest of rhetorical study began to grow in the organization of departments of rhetoric and speech at colleges and universities, as well as the development of national and international professional organizations. whatsoever modern theorists believe that it was important to restore the interest of the study of rhetoric because of the renewed importance of language and persuasion in the progressively reconciled environs of the twentieth century and through the twenty-first century, with the media spotlight on the wide difference s and analyses of political rhetoric and its result s. With the expansion of marketing and of gage media such as photography, telegraphy, radio, and film, rhetoric is being more notably conveyed into peoples lives.In spite of its legacy as a moral way for persuasion, rhetoric has answer to imply on negative chthonictones. Through the years, generations have forgotten whats the real(a) meaning of rhetoric is and has somehow implicate that this word is deceptive and untrustworthy. Today, rhetoric is greatly utilized by mass media in a derogatory manner, particularly when associated to public policies and politicians.Rhetoric as a systematic study was developed by a group of orators, educators, and advocates called Sophists. In the book, The History and Theory of Rhetoric An Introduction by James Herrick, he states, Sophists employed paradoxes to shock their audiences, just instantly also by this means to provoke debate and inquiry (Herrick, 2009). The Sophists outlook on rhetoric may very well have been the spark that ignited todays worldwide misinterpretation on the meaning behind rhetoric. Sophists viewed rhetoric as a means that could unite pleasure with government. Sophists believed that words had the capability to medicate the audience. Although during this time when rhetoric was a skill with an increasingly expressive demand, it began to alter to a negative nuance as Platos criticisms grew more popular.The most primitive paradigm of rhetoric as a derogatory word nominate be followed back to Plato and his opinions about the Sophists. As one of Socrates renowned students, Plato often portrayed the Sophists as highly skillful writers who patch up the most of misleading language methods to persuade and influence audiences. Platos assumption on mundanity, also reiterated through the writings of Isocrates, was based on the gluttony, deception and the general wishing of trust and apprehension for justice. Sophists could manipulate speech to make the worse situation appear better.The term Sophism continues to maintain the negative reputation in todays society. In Rereading the Sophists Classical Rhetoric Refigured, author Susan Jarratt defines sophism as a derogatory term for a carefully crafted yet false argument aimed at deceiving someone (Jarratt, 1998). Sophism is also used today to describe rhetorical circumstances in which emotional demands may be emphasized over logical demands. Sophism and rhetoric have shared these negative connections into our modern era .As Christianity began to extend in the Middle Ages after the fall of the Roman Empire, societies started to connect rhetoric as expressive and fancy, unless it was short of any acquaintance or general idea. callable to the Church not believing expressiveness was an important aspect to conversation and speech, rhetoric was diminished and viewed depreciatively.By the sixteenth century, rhetorics reputation had been revitalized, but some prominent scholars continued to pass judgment on rhetoric. Reformer Peter Ramus questioned rhetoric by stating that rhetoric was mainly a kind of verbal enhancement and as a result of little consequence. As Ramus praised dialectic and called rhetoric into question, rhetoric illogical its theoretical influence, and was again viewed as nothing more than a stylistic, pessimistic speech tool. In his scheme of things, the five components of rhetoric no longer lived under the common heading of rhetoric. Instead, invention and disposition were determine d to fall solely under the heading of dialectic, while stylus, delivery, and memory were all that stayed for rhetoric. In The Electronic leger Technology, Democracy, and Arts create verbally by Richard Lanham, he expresses that Ramus separated thought from language by developing a replica of education in which reason breaks excuse of speech (Lanham, 1993, pp. 157-158). Language became an impartial tool for conveying the findings of other disciplines, and was no longer viewed as the basis of an art form that has been mastered by an improve person for its own sake.Another major contributor to the development of Western guessing about rhetoric is the great Greek philosopher, Aristotle. Aristotle was a student of Plato who magnificently set off an extended treatise on rhetoric that is still repays careful study today. One of the most significant contributions of Aristotles approach was that he saw rhetoric as one of the three basic essentials of philosophy, in conjunction with log ic and dialectic. In the opening words of Rhetoric authored by Aristotle, he asserts that rhetoric is the tete-a-tete of dialectic (Aristotle Roberts, 1954, p. 30). Logic, according to Aristotle, is the area of philosophy concern with ways of thinking to reach scientific assurance while dialectic and rhetoric are concerned with possibility and therefore is the parts of philosophy best suited to human affairs. Dialectic is an instrument for theoretical debate it is a way for listeners to assess presumptive knowledge with the intention of learning. Rhetoric is an instrument for sensible debate it is a way for convincing a common group of listeners using reliable knowledge to resolve practical issues. Dialectic and rhetoric together create a relationship for a method of persuasion derived from knowledge rather than playing on emotion.Today, modern scholars emphasize why rhetoric has taken on a derogatory connotation. They presume that there is a tendency to forget rhetorics past, w hich has damaged state by labeling all political speech as trickery, as well as unsuccessfully teaching the general public to vitally understand and make use of good speech. Richard Lanham (Lanham, 1993, pp. 243-246) disputed that the model of electronic words and textbooks has a natural potential to encourage democratic discourse and human thinking. Nevertheless, the source for Lanhams cheerful view of the digital age a perception that electronic textually makes no invidious distinctions between high and low culture, commercial and pure usage, talented or chance creation, ocular or auditory stimulus, iconic or alphabetic information (Lanham, 1993, pp. 14) is besieged by some basic opposition which not solely imply but reinforce all these oppositions. As Richard Lanham documented in his book, The Electronic Word, the presentation of words through the static textual display of bring out is quickly being replaced by the more fluid textual forms of the computer screen, which are radically altering our existing definitions of literacy. Lanham believes these new textual forms such as e-mail, network exchanges, and hypertext are changing our intellectual perception back to the root source of Western rhetoricWe can . . . think of electronic prose as wretched back toward the world of oral rhetoric, where gestural symmetries were permitted and sound was omnipresent. Any prose text, by the very nature of the denial/expression tensions that create and animate it, oscillates back and forth between literate self-denial and oral permissiveness, but electronic text does so much more self-consciously, simply by the volatile nature of the scripted surface. A volatile surface invites us to intensify rather than subdue this oscillation, make it more rather than less self-conscious (Lanham, 1993).In addition, while some may feel the electronic explosion of inert textual structures serves to mark the death of the Western education, as demonstrated in the linear structure s of print, Lanham believes it completes fairly the reverse and brings literacy more similar to another oscillation that Western thinking has always displayed.Reflecting the internal tension of elitism versus populism inherent in distinct ludic and resistance versions of postmodern theory, Lanhams digital rhetoric exemplifies an unsure oscillation between critical and aesthetic approaches to hypertext on one hand, and a more popular democratic appreciation of electronic media, the sub-cultural intertextuality of global culture, and interactive multimedia on the other. As Lanham exemplifies many of the hypermedia theorists and critics retained their privileged literary and critical assumptions, undermining claimed connections to the popular cultural extensions of electronic media. This is possibly because of the opposing and congenital ways in which an all-purpose hypermedia model alternates between focusing on designed interactive descriptions and the act of reading or reception as an essentially unintentional process, and (2) decreases human language and communication generally to the expressions of distinct images and information consequently also supporting an underlying conflict between print-age examples of language-use and the new and ever-present popular electronic culture. The integration of hypertext concept into a general hypermedia framework of electronic literacy is more than only a matter of describing hypermedia as hypertext extended to include electronic multimedia effects such as digitized sound and graphics. Postmodern literary models of meaning as a detail product and play of open-ended narratives, language games, and reader-response clearly lent themselves to theorizing about hypertext. Such privileged models of textuality, reception, and aesthetic process or objects were implicitly at betting odds with the semiotic move to go from the subtle and intricate textual allusions of open-ended narratives mediated as verbal language-use to incl ude the media of electronic popular culture in terms of language reduced to and even replaced by electronic imagery obsessed with the transitory fixations of human memory and desire.The residual print assumptions of a crossing between the hypermedia model of electronic literacy and postmodern critical theories or practices is perhaps most effectively analyzed in terms of how points out, hypertext encourages both writers and readers to introduce and work consciously and concretely with deconstruction, intertextuality, the decentering of the author, and the readers complicity with the construction of the text. In other words, the idea of hypertext effectively reinforces the postmodernist theories of such theorists as Barthes, Derrida, and Baudrillard that natural languages and other systems of representationespecially those involving electronic visual mediaare autonomous in relation to the diverse and contingent contexts of individual language users, specific language events, and di screte forms of verbal or visual representation.The twentieth century is perhaps the most exhilarating period in which to study rhetoric since the Middle Age. This has come about with the beginning of what is generally referred to as the New Rhetoric the rediscovery of rhetorics epistemological significance and the critical role of persuasion and argument to our everyday lives. It is impossible to name all the causes for this new-found importance or all the contributors to the New Rhetoric, but among the most influential we must accreditedly consider I.A. Richards whose work on metaphor associated rhetoric to literary studies, Chaim Perelman, whose book The New Rhetoric is now a classic, Steven Toulmin, best known for his inquiries of argument, and possibly the most influential rhetorician of our era, Kenneth Burke.In teaching in the Middle Ages and years before, we have determined that rhetoric was a tool to teach students how to write good essays and, in other areas, it was a too l for persuasion. Rhetoric is widely used in business, politics, and technical writing. For example, the structure and style of letters, memos, speeches, and other kinds of documents follow the rhetorical standards. The old rhetoric dealt primarily with the structure and content of an essay or presentation. With New Rhetoric, rhetoric is given new limits. It now includes philosophy and sociology. It is no longer how to inscribe a good essay or speak a good speech, but how well we recognize communication and its influences on our lives. With the discovery of the World Wide Web (WWW), rhetoric had received a new, powerful field of its purpose. For the most part, rhetorical principles reveal its power in different kinds of Web projects.The five parts of the classical notion invention, ar roll upment, memory, delivery, and styleare one way we might start mediating about how to apply rhetorical ideas to writings in the twenty-first century and beyond. After all, literacy has undergone ma ny changes in the pastfrom orality, to writing, to printand it will likely undergo many more, in ways we cannot even now imagine. We need to think about how computers and computer writing will impact the future of rhetoric, of composition and composition classes, and of literacy itself.Making hypertext documents on the WWW (World Wide Web) passports a wide range of freedom. The most astonishing difference in an electronic document is the skills to provide fairly instant access to the resources you gather during the invention process. To fully exploit the capabilities of hypertext, you should offer hypertext links that lead directly to the material you use in supporting your claims. Providing links to this material involves the audience in the invention process your audience can have access to your primary materials and verify the validity of your evidence. Locating supporting information is greatly facilitated by search engines that can explore the Web for you, trailing down useful and relevant evidence to support your own presentations. In addition, many Web sites grant permission to use their digitized images.In an electronic document, there is no easy distinction between a beginning, middle, and an end. Determining a suitable arrangement for your electronic document depends on your creativity. Innovative arrangements are mostly a matter of style can have powerful emotional appeal for an audience.Gorgias recognized the persuasive power of atypical uses of language, for changes in the usual rove and meaning affected the audience. Today in the electronic age, Gorgias brainstorms still remains true, but of course their submissions have expanded. Writing documents for the WWW creates an entirely new world, or cyberspace, one wide open to new ways of expression, and maybe meaning. An image, like a figure of speech can communicate meaning and provide your rhetorical principle. The same can be said for color. Color, like a trope, covers your meaning, provides y our reason or at least it can. Of course, and image, and color has to provide a purpose but it must be suitable to the situation.Memory is fourth of the ancient standard of rhetoric. In the ancient law courts and assemblies, men were often called upon to deliver speeches without the help of written comments. The Greeks and Romans developed intricate memory systems that allowed them to give speeches precisely as it was written. Memory on the Web means some entirely different. Most people take it to mean the ways that readers can remember where they are and where they have been while they surf the net.In the days when text was written only to be conveyed verbally, the ability to persuasively delivery of a speech was one of the premier talents. Delivery is obviously related to the other standards, especially style, because your usefulness as an orator of text varying in large parts on the method of delivery that you chooses. In the hypertext world, delivery takes on some new obstacles. Were no longer certain who will be listening to our speech, nor are we positive that theyll even hear it the same way. The documents we generate are read by browsers, which decipher the HTML computer code for presenting on the monitor. Because each of these browsers maintains very different features, successful delivery is contingent on writing documents that predict the difference among browsers.Rhetoric, this art of persuasion, totally distorted our insight of the truth. Everything depends on the ability of speaker or writer to affectively captivate the audience using his or her credibility, detailed style, and compelling arguments. Anything can be shown as the truth. Due to this capability to alter anything to the truth the Rhetoric became an indispensable tool in the business communication. How to persuade people to purchase goods, services, ideasanything, that business word generates? How to encourage them that this is a necessity or this is the truth? It cannot be accomplish ed without rhetoric. The rhetorical theories had been altered by our highly technological age, but they did not modify in their real meaning. There is the truth that subsist in rhetoricits values itself.Rhetoric has not lost its inability in 21st century, but vice versa, we can advert that rhetorical theories reveal itself in any document individually from technology that was used for its establishing. On the one handRhetorical theories are used in todays writing, publishing, and electronic documents as a way of persuasion. On the other handrhetoric is no longer an essential humanist study of structure and content but a study on how and why we communicate and what we can learn from the methods of communication.

Toxic Metals in Traditional Chinese Medicine Determination

Toxic Metals in Traditional Chinese Medicine DeterminationDetermination of cyanogenetic metals in Traditional Chinese Medicine samples by atomic liberation spectrometryTraditional Chinese Medicines(TCM) pay back gained increasing trouble worldwide because of their effectiveness and small side effects1. The excess of toxic metals in these medicines have become superstar of the biggest problems that affected their export and hinde flushed their introduction to the world2. In recent years, many domestic and abroad testing organizations paid great attention to the toxic metals in handed-down Chinese medicines. everydayly, toxic metals in traditional Chinese medicines including Lead, Cadmium, Chromium, Mercury, Copper and so on3, sometimes people also prefer including arsenic trioxide as toxic heavy metal. Different types of heavy metals in human effect different parts or systems, and the symptoms of poisoning cornerstone be on the nervous, digestive, hematopoietic systems or peo ples metabolism and other body damage. So to accurate detect and limit the content of toxic metals is the key to cling to the people of medication safety, to promote the inter interior(a)ization of traditional Chinese medicines. Recently, themost commonly use detection methods of detection of toxic metals include colorimetric assay and submissive analysis4. With the increasing conductments for toxic metal limits, instrumental analysis method has become the primary means of detection of heavy metals. In this paper, the determination of toxic metals in traditional Chinese medicine samples by atomic emission spectrometry technology are reviewed.1. The national limits for toxic metals in herbal medicines and productIn general, quantitative tests and limit tests accurately determinate the submergences of toxic metals in the form of impurities and contaminants. The latter are unavoidably present in the samples being tested. Member states can elect to use either quantitative tests or l imit tests and their choices will be influenced by the nature of the sample and the contaminants or residues, assessed on a case-by-case basis. Another factor would be that the methods identified, and chosen to be applied to control toxic metals, should be relevant and should meet the requirements at a regional and national level. Some examples of proposed national limits for arsenic and toxic metals in various types of herbal products are shown in Table 15.Table 1. Example of national limits for arsenic and toxic metals in herbal medicines and products2. The sources of toxic metals in traditional Chinese medicine samplesThe toxic metals in traditional Chinese medicines can be from the soil where is contaminated, in the processes of collection and production.3. Atomic emission spectroscopy (AES)Atomic emission spectroscopy (AES) is a method of chemical analysis, when the analyte atoms in solution are aspirated into the excitation region( firing, plasma, arc, or spark at a particula r wavelength) and underwent desolvated, vaporized, atomized, these high-temperature sources provide sufficient nil to promote the atoms into high energy levels, after decaying back to haplesser energy levels by emitting light, the wavelength of the atomic spectral lines gives the identity of the chemical element and the intensity of light proportional to the concentration of atoms, this can be apply to determinate the quantity of elements in a sample. Since all atoms are excited simultaneously, they can be detected simultaneously.3.1 The classification of AESFlame atomic emission spectroscopy(FAES) The energy source is flame, a sample is brought into the flame by a nebulizer in the form of gas, sprayed solution. A flame provides a high-temperature source for desolvating and vaporizing a sample to obtain free atoms for spectroscopic analysis. For atomic emission spectroscopy the flame must also excites the atom to higher excited states. Then subsequently emit light when they retu rning to the ground electronic state. all(prenominal) element emits light at a characteristic wavelength, which is dispersed by a grating or prism(monochromator) and detected by photo detector. Due to its low temperature(17003200C), nitrous oxide-acetylene is the best flame as this gives the highest temperature. FAES used mostly for determination of alkali metals and occasionally calcium, and need internal standard to correct for variations flame6. So FAES is everlastingly used with FAAS together to determinate the content of metals in a sample. Slavica Rai used FAAS/FAES to determinate the elements of Cu, Zn, Mn, Fe, K, Ca, Mg in some of herbal drugs7.Inductively match plasma atomic emission spectroscopy(ICP-AES) Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy(ICP-AES) uses an inductively coupled plasma as thermal source to excite atoms and ions to their excited energy levels and emit electromagnetic radiation at wavelengths characteristic of a particular element8.ICP-AE S has a lot of advantages such as low inter-element interference, multi-element capability, high sensitivity, high concentration range, low chemical interference, with stable and reproducible signal and high degree of selectivity, precision and accuracy(0.33%), can use with gas, liquid or solids samples. Disadvantages are stark spectral interferences(too many emission lines), procedures complicated, consume large Ar gas and operating expense, not possible to determinate the elements of H, N, O, C or Ar in trace levels as they are used in solvents and plasma, and also not possible to determinate F, Cl and noble gases at trace levels as they require high excitation energy.Spark and arc atomic emission spectroscopy For solid samples, spark or arc atomic emission spectroscopy is used for the analysis of metallic elements.4. Determination of toxic metals in traditional Chinese medicine by ICP-AESBecause of its high sensitivity, low detection limit, high precision, wide linear range, mu lti-element analysis, small matrix effects and many other advantages for the detection of most of the metallic elements. ICP-AES has become the most effective method that was widely used in all kinds of traditional Chinese medicines in the determination of toxic metals9. Yan Qing-hua used ICP-AES to determinate 14 kinds of elements Cu, Fe, Zn, Mn, Na, K, Ca, Mg, Cr, Ni, Pb, Se, As, Cd in traditional Chinese medicines for clearing love and detoxification. Showed the determining elements in traditional Chinese medicine by IPC-AES saving time and effort, reducing environmental pollution, good stability, high sensitivity and multi-element simultaneous analysis10. Liu Er-dong used ICP-AES to determinate metallic elements for quality control of Chinese herbal medicines showed this method is accurate and rapid11.4.1 Sampling processWith the development of separation science, sample preparation methods have also been substantially developed, e finickyly the sample preparation method for co mplex material systems, which has gained more attention in recent years. The specific method requires special preparation methods or combination methods according to the specific nature and status of the sample preparation. The traditional Chinese medicines samples are very complicated12, the preparation method normally includes conventional extraction methods such as steam distillation, water extraction, and alcohol precipitation, alcohol precipitation of water, organic solvent extraction, fractionation, absorption. For the determination of toxic metals in traditional Chinese medicine samples, people have made a lot of work in improving the equipment, good analysis methods to improve the experimental measurements. moreover always overlook one more important factor, sampling. So how to improve the accuracy of sampling is also one of the most important topics to be studied.4.2Digestion suss outDigestion is an important process in the determination of toxic metals in traditional Chi nese medicines. The general methods of digestion including ashing, wet digestion, microwave digestion, combustion method and high pull dissolving. But all of these methods have their limitations (1) cant be guaranteed fully adapted to all organic samples (2) the waste of analyte (3) perchloric bitter is flammable and explosible. Li Yang compared the digestion methods of prohibitionist ashing, wet digestion and microwave digestion in the process of determination of elements in periostracum serpentis and periostracum cicadae13. The results showed the microwave digestion with the highest efficiency.The samples of traditional Chinese medicine are always cleaned the sediment and washed with implore water, rewashed with de-ionized water, dried under 80 smashed and filtered through 40 mesh sieve, dried under 80 again for 1h, put into drier for using.4.2.1 Ashing digestionAshing digestion is digest samples at high temperature, this is used to find the total mineral content of a sample. Kuziemska Beata used ashing digestion method to determinate the contents of toxic metallic elements in red clover biomass14.Normal procedure as follows Weighed dry sample 1g (wet 24 g), put it in porcelain crucible, charring with low heat , then ashing in furnaces at 450 for 3 hours, cooled and added a little distilled water, heated slightly to dry, then placed in a high temperature furnace ashing completely, cooled, add 1 1 HNO3 1.0 ml, dissolved with heating, rotary the volume to 25ml.4.2.2 Wet digestionIn the process of wet digestion, normally use the solvent of acid or oxidizing agent to digest the samples. The commonly used acid and oxidizer are as followsNitric acid The most commonly used acid in the process of digestion, it is also a strong oxidant which is widely used to dissolve trace elements in plant samples, get their soluble nitrate. Xue Yan used nitric acid as digestion reagent to detect chromium in medical materials showed the detection limit was 1.42 ng/mL, and the deviations were 1.43%1.79%15.Perchloric acid Can decompose organic component completely, which is used when the other reagents can not digest. However, the heat strong perchloric acid is explosible when contact with organic components, so the operator must be very careful.Aqua regia It is a strong oxidant, can applied to digest inorganic components, such as gold and platinum. Tahar Kebir used aqua regia to digest food plants near a polluted site for the measurement of toxic metals(Fe, Pb, Zn, Ni, Cu, Cd, Mn, Cr and As) and got magnificent results16.Hydrofluoric acid It is an efficient reagent to dissolve silicon-containing material. It can change silicate into SiF4, which is used to digest silicon samples completely. When mixed with nitric acid, could digest TiO2, W, Zr et al.Hydrogen peroxide It is one of the most commonly used oxidants, if combined with HNO3, HCIO4, HCI or mixed acid, the efficiency could be better.Sulfuric acid Strong acid and oxidant.The capacity of these aci d and oxidant are different. In the practical applications, normally use the variety show of two or more inorganic acids with different proportion(HNO3-H2SO4, HNO3-HCIO4, H2SO4-HNO3-HCIO4). It has proven that the optimal digestion reagents are the mixture of HNO3-HCIO4, could digest multiple components simultaneously. Tong Wen-jie used HNO3-HCIO4 to digest sunflower(Helianthus annuus L) and analyzed the mineral elements content17. Cai Yanrong also used HNO3-HCIO4 as digestion reagents in the study of trace elements(Fe, Cu, Zn, Al, K, Na, Ba, Sb, Pb, As) in hair samples18.4.2.3 zap digestionMicrowave digestion requires only a small amount of sample and can digest in short time. It is a widely used digestion method in the determination of elements in herbal drugs. Li Feng-xia used microwave digestion method to test and analyze of inorganic elements in 466 traditional Chinese medicines19 showed that the measurements of each element are within the reference range, and RSD of determina tion is less than 10% for most of detected elements. In Yan Qing-huas study, his experiments also used microwave digestion technology, the recovery of the element reach 96.79%103.47% and RSD less than 5.0%10. Zhang Sheng-bang used HNO3-H2O2 as solvents, microwave digestion to study multi-elements in traditional Chinese medicine Ophiopogon japonicus and Lotus seeds by ICP-AES20.Conclusion and outlookIn recent years, the toxic metals in traditional Chinese medicines are concerned increasing all over the world. The methods of determination of toxic metals are not withal fully unified and also lack of regulation, scientific and systemic research. In the Chinese Pharmacopoeia(2010 version), in addition to the classical colorimetric method, more and more wedded to the using of high sensitivity and precision instruments measurements. ICP-AES has proven to be a quick, high sensitive and multi-elements analysis method. But there are still a lot of problems to be solved, new methods of deter mination of toxic metals are required, we hope there is a even faster and cheaper method to satisfy the measurements of toxic metals for TCMs quick check in the process of import and export. Of course, the determination of toxic metals in Chinese medicine samples is a long-term work, with the development of detection technology, the perceptible levels of toxic metals in traditional Chinese medicines will be increased, thereby enhancing their safety.References1 T. J. Zhang. Chinese Traditional and Herbal Drugs, 2011, 42, 192 P. C. A. Kam S. Liew. Anaesthesia, 2002, 57, 108310893 Catherine Buettner Kenneth J. Mukamal Paula Gardiner Roger B. Davis ScD Murray A. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 2009,24(11),1175-11824 Anna Filipiak-Szok Marzanna Kurzawa Edward Szyk. Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology, 2014, ASAP5 Patel Parthik. IJRAP, 2011, 2(4), 1148-11546 Anderson S. Ribeiro. J. Braz. Chem. Soc., 2012, 23(9), 1623-16297 Slavica Razic Antonije Onjiab Svetlana ogo Lat inka Slavkovic Aleksandar Popovic. Talanta, 2005, 67, 2332398 A. Stefansson. Analytica Chimica Acta, 2007, 582, 69749 Mao L Tan MX Chen ZF Liang H. Guang Pu Xue Yu Guang Pu Fen Xi, 2009, 29(9), 2568-70.10 Yan Qing-hua Yang li Wang Qing Ma Xiao-Qin. Journal of Saudi chemic Society, 2012, 16, 28729011 Liu Erdong Zheng Yong-jun. Asian Journal of Chemistry, 2011, 23(3), 1091-109412 Fang, Luo Yang, Guonong Song, Yu Li, Fanzhu Lin, Nengming. Journal of Separation Science, 2014,37(22),3245-325213 Yang, Li Li, Yanlan Xj, Guoxj Ma, Xiaoqin Yan, Qinghua. Journal of the Chilean Chemical Society, 2013, 58(3), 1876-187914 Kuziemska, Beata Kalembasa, Stanislaw. Archives of Environmental Protection, 2009,35(1),95-10515 Xue Yan. Huaxue Fenxi Jiliang, 2012, 21(5), 52-5316 Tahar, Kebir Keltoum, Bouhadjera Abderrazzak, Baba Ahmed. International Journal of Research and Reviews in Applied Sciences, 2014, 18(1), 51-5817 Tong, Wen-jie Chen, Fu Wen, Xin-ya. Guangpuxue Yu Guangpu Fenxi, 2014, 34(1),231-234 .18 Cai Yanrong. Biological trace element research, 2011, 144(1-3), 469-47419 Li Feng-xia Ouyang Li Liu Ya-qiong Zeng Jing Yan Lai-lai Wang Jing-yu. China journal of Chinese materia medica. 2011,36(21),2994-300020 Zhang Sheng-bang Ji Xiao-wu Liu Cui-ping. Advanced Materials Research (Durnten-Zurich, Switzerland), 2012, 535-537

Knights Templar

Knights TemplarKnights Templar The Knights Templar was a religious military regulate that arose during the first and second crusades and their secrets and wealth destroyed the organization (Campbell 29-33). The Knights Templar started out as a blue group of monks and eventually grew to become a powerful religious order. Members had duties and certain lifestyles as a Templar. The order rapidly spread across Europe subsequently it began. The Templar would become one and only(a) of the nigh innovative and influential groups during the Crusades period (Templars). The Knights Templar is shrouded in secrecy this would be their downfall and their biggest calling card. The original name or the full moon name for the Knights Templar back tooth be quite a mouth full the Holy secernate of the Poor Knights of Christ and the Temple of Solomon is the full name of the Order(Campbell 29-33). Most paraphernalia refer to them as the Knights Templar. Some call the members just Templar, or warri or monks. The Poor Fellow Soldiers of Christ and the Temple of Solomon is another name employ (Campbell 29-33). People back in the time of the crusade would have called them heroes. After the first crusade, two new military orders came about in Jerusalem (Read 17-24). One, the Knights Hospitallers, or Knights of Saint John, whose task was to aid the wounded in Outremer, or the land across the sea (Read 17-24). The second military order to arise was the Knights Templar, whose duty was to patronize the pilgrims on their way to the Holy Land (Campbell 29-33). In 1118, before the start of the Order, Hugues de Payan and eight fellow knights went to Jerusalem and offered their services to the king. The king offered housing to the knights at the source mosque al-Aqsa, which was located on the site of King Solomons great temple (Hughes 34). The Order was born here and trustworthy its name from the temple it was protecting. The Knights Templar took vows of poverty, chastity and obedience . The religious order was created at the Temple of Solomon and swore to protect the Holy Land (Campbell 29-33). Hughes states in his book that the Templar fought bravely against the Saracens, not leaving dispute unless outnumbered three to one (34). The order received the blessing of the Pope in 1129, and the Templar soon got recognition as heroes. With the Popes blessing, the Templar could now recruit members and raise money through donations. Donations came to the Templar in large amounts. The warrior monks were given wealth, jewels, and holding (Hughes 34). King Alfonso I of Argon gave the Templar one-third of his Spanish Empire on his deathbed (Read 17-24). They owned land in France, Spain, England, Italy, Germany, Portugal, Austria, Hungary, and other places. Men withal went to the Templar to support their cause, and more or less in hopes of getting rich. The Knights Templar did have their critics though (Sterns 84-111). The Templar owned houses all across the map, and they used that to their benefit. The Knights Templar became the first bankers in a way. Travelers would deposit money at one Templar building, and travel, with a statement of deposit, to another city (Knight, and Lomas 121). They would then cash in their statement and receive the same amount of money at another Templar body structure at their final destination. This was a very safe method, because the traveler could not be robbed. The Templar began to escort travelers on their fleets of ships, charging a fee for both services. That allowed them to take in a large sum of money (Knight, and Lomas 121). The Order was so beloved by the Christian people that the Pope freed the Templar from loyalty to any ruler. From then on the order only answered to the Pope. The Templar later became involved with politics. They served on royal committees and councils. The duties of a Templar split among the regions (Hughes 17). In the east, they watched fierce warriors defending Christianity, and in the w est, they became farmers and merchants. The order was rapidly gaining wealth and riches (Campbell 29-33).During the second crusade, the Templar fought for the Christian effort. They were among whatsoever of the highest skilled fighters during this time. Indrikis Sterns quotes a 13th century author by sayingthey are marked by their tag white helmets and armor, which bears a red cross (84-111). During the second crusade, the knights became very powerful and wealthy due to payments for their services from several empires. This excluded King Phillip IV of France. He was greatly in debt with the order, owing them large sums of land and money (Hughes 17). The King was worried about his debts to this powerful and influential order. Phillip IV called upon Pope Clement V to portion all the members of the order on trial for heresy and other crimes committed. The Pope found no fault in the Order under the trials of heresy scarce did find fault in their initiation ceremonies. The Pope had t hem burned at the steak for unspeakable acts against the church (Sterns 84-111). The Knights Templar were said to spit upon a cross before battle and kiss their leaders to show complete obedience to them. The order was not destroyed, but badly crippled. The Knights Templar was hidden in darkness and secrecy, and they will always remain a mystery.This is believed to have led to their downfall. The Knights Templar was said to possess a great secret (Hughes 17). This secret may have been practical knowledge, which if revealed could undermine Christianity or some people believe that the Templar had some great relic. Possibly, a piece of the true cross or the crown of thorns worn by Jesus was in their monomania according to Campbell (29-33). The shroud which Jesus was wrapped in his tomb, a piece of wood from a bath used by Jesus, a bronze bankroll used to wash the feet of the disciples at the last supper or the head of John the Baptist are all rumored (Hughes 34). The Holy Grail used in the last supper is the most famous of all the relics thought to be owned by the Templar (Knight, and Lomas 121). It is truly unknown whether the Templar had any of these artifacts. Maybe they had one, or two, possibly all, but nobody can be certain. With the amount of land and money that the Templar had, and the possible possessions of great relics, specifically the Holy Grail, people were bound to envy the order (Knight, and Lomas 121). Some people to a fault say that the Knights Templar and their relics live on under the Freemasons. The Masons are said to use many of the same symbols and rituals of the Knights Templar. Things do not help the cause when the Freemasons are also just a shrouded into secrecy as the Knights Templar (Knight, and Lomas 121).Whether the Order lives on or not is a question to be left answered by the opinions of us all. A person may believe all the tales or that the Freemasons, the makers of our country are members of the Order. One may also believe that the entire story of the Knights Templar and the later Freemasons is a complete hoax. However, what would history be without mystery and intrigue?Works CitedCampbell, G.A.Knights Templar The Rise and Fall. San Francisco Kessinger Publishing, 2004. 29-33. Print.Hughes, Charles. How The Vatican Destroyed the Knights Templar.Independent26 October 2007 34. Print.Knight, Christopher, and Robert Lomas.The Hiram Key. Sacremento Fair Winds Press, 2003. 121. Print.Read, Pierce.The Templars. 1. New York MacMillan, 1999. 17. Print.Sterns, Indrikis.Crime and Punishment among the Teutonic Knights. 1. 57. New York Medieval honorary society of America, 1982. 84-111. Print.Templars. Dictionary of the Middle Ages. Supplement. American Council of Learned Societies. Charles Scribners Sons, 2004. Reproduced in History Resource Center. Farmington Hills, MI Gale. http//galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/History/

Impact of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) on Finances

Impact of Corporate Social righteousness (CSR) on FinancesSummaryThe target atomic number 18a of this research is to study the impact of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) on fiscal public presentation. The trend of CSR addresses a major challenge in providing a broader agency of the business surround, understood not simply in its sparing and pecuniary just now similarly amicable, human and ecological through an operationalization and verification of the theoretic shape offerd in a sample of Tunisian stiffs, evidenced by a questionnaire sent to 30 companies Tunisian drawn. The results are the lack of link amongst CSR and monetary doing mensurable by the report carding ROA, small-arm there is a imperious if financial exercise is measured by ROE.Keywords Corporate Social Responsibility of Firms, Financial Performance,RsumLobjectif de cette recherche est dtudier limpact de la Responsabilit Soci bal integrityy de lEntreprise (RSE) sur la motion financire. La RSE rpond un enjeu majeur, en proposant une reprsentation largie de lenvironnement diethylstilbesterol firmes, entendu non seulement dans ses dimensions conomiques et financires, mais aussi affectionatees, humaines et cologiques. A travers, une oprationnalisation et une vrification du modle thorique propos, au niveau dun chantillon dentreprises tunisiennes, matrialis, par un questionnaire adress 30 entreprises tunisiennes tir au sort. Les rsultats obtenus relvent labsence de lien entre la RSE et la implementation financire mesure par l omenur comptable ROA, alors quil existe un lien positif si la performance financire est mesure par lROE.Mots cls Responsabilit Socitale de lEntreprise, Performance Financire1- INTRODUCTIONIn the 1850s, the role of the lodge was seen as a purely economic, and bounded to the maximization of profit for shareholders. In this regard, such an nestle is consistent with a classical view of the firm where management essentially concerns managers and sharehol ders (Friedman, 1970). Further, the company was faced increased pressure from its stakeholders (Freeman, 1984). In this regard it should take into account the effects of its activities in the communities where it operates. This brings her back to reconsider its relations with its stakeholders and to reconcile the lots conflicting objectives of various interest groups. The estimate of well-disposed province of business without delay (CSR) responds to this challenge by providing a broader representation of the business environment, understood not simply in its economic and financial but also mixer, human and ecological. any company that wants to ensure its sustainability, an imperative for financial performance, but also should not ignore or largely ignore the societal benefit that is to say, to engage in a societal approach. The objective of this research is cardinalfold , foremost to study the impact of CSR on financial performance. Second in a to a greater extent explicit, we handle to study in the target companies in our survey, the degree of perception of the thought of friendly tariff through five dimensions namely economic, intelligent, ethical, discretionary, and environmental. In this part, our problem is as followsWhat is the impact of social responsibility of corporate financial performance?2. SOCIETAL RESPONSIBILITY OF THE COMPANY (CSR) TOWARDS THE EMERGENCE OF A NEW CONCEPTBeing responsible for(p) is to ensure their actions and their consequences and to accept accountability. hardly when this term is applied to the company, it is a concept that can be understood in opposite ways. Nowadays, the definition and delimitation of the concept of social responsibility still the subject of controversy and conceptual differences. So, social responsibility has been the subject of increased attention by many organizations of diverse spirit, the European and worldwide institutions, professional companionships and business net fiddles, Its eme rgence is born with Bowen (1953) who scored in the first initiative CSR refers to the requirement for businessmen to carry out the policies, decisions and follow the guidelines spreading objectives and site that are considered desirable in our fellowship. Subsequently, MC Guire (1963) argues in his work that the idea of social responsibility implies that the firm has not only economic or legal obligations but also has responsibilities to society that go beyond these obligations .Then, Davis (1973) emphasizes that CSR refers to the consideration by the business issues that go beyond its economic obligations and the technical equal and close to the answers that gives these companies problems. This actor that CSR begins where law ends. For Carroll (1979) CSR integrates all economic expectations, legal, ethical and philanthropic society may have in respect of a company at a time. go Jones (1980) stresses the idea that companies, by then the statutory or contractual obligation to h ave a societal actors. Similarly, Wood (1991) anchors his discussion on the meaning of the indebtedness can be seen that through the interplay of three principles legitimacy, public responsibility and distinction of three levels of institutional analysis, organizational and individual. In reality, these definitions are normally content to foreground the discretionary nature of CSR, highlighting the fact that it recognized the dimensions beyond the purely economic or legal activity of the company. What brought Carroll (1979) distinguish four categories of CSRThe economic responsibilityThe legal liability,Responsibility EthicsResponsibility discretion.2.1 Approaches to CSR measuresMeasuring CSR is a necessary condition for knowledge of their own social responsibility and thus to control environmental and social impacts. Assessing the social and environmental performance, the establishment of a steering system for the performance and accountability on these external dimensions imply the existence of metrics to quantify the quality of management of the business related non-financial. In fact, the existence of these metrics is also of particular importance to some other stakeholders that ethical investors who require such data to select the best performing companies on the main criteria the quality of resource management Human and respect for human rights. This leads companies to establish a legal and socio-technical home to make measurable CSR stakeholders. In theoretical terms, the extent of CSR faces similar problems to those identified to define the concept of CSR the multiplicity of approaches and dimensions of this complex concept, difficult to report objectively its components much(prenominal) subjective often linked to an assessment ground on criteria related to ethics or a social context.2.1.1 Measuring CSR in the academic publicationsAmong the different methods of measurement of CSR that have been used, we can distinguish five categoriesMeasur es of speech, such as content analysis of annual reports, which are to be based on remarks made by companies to assess their CSR, for example by counting the number of lines or words dedicated to themes CSR in the annual report of a companyIndicators of pollution provided by some agencies to assess the pollution of businesses, such as the Toxic Release Inventory in the U.S., or for example measurements of the diffusion of carbonic acid gas by businessesMeasures of attitudes and values aimed at assessing the sensitivity of members of the organization (eg managers, employees) to the various dimensions of CSR and are generally administered in the form of a questionnaireMeasures of news report, such as the indicator of reputation developed by scribbleowitz in the 1970s in the American magazine Fortune, which includes criteria related to CSR that are assessed by a panel of industry experts to which operates within the opening move in questionThe behavioral measures or audit, developed by the agencies that specialize in the assessment of social behavior and environmental responsibility, such as the U.S. KLD, EIRIS in Britain or in France Vigeo.3. FINANCIAL carrying out DEFINITIONPerformance is tried to rely on commercialise place efficiency that ensures the best allocation of resources and rejects any printing of corporate responsibility other than making profit for its shareholders. As a design performance based on an external view (the current shareholders and potential), often linked to the stock exchange during the action of the company. The performance measures are thus based on data from financial statements. The control and management are accommodate towards the minimization of cost and return on investment. It is a large building which includes questions on the financial performance within the organization. For a financial indicator, the financial performance of the organization is measured by its financial validity, such as accessibility to differen t sources of funding or its profitability compared to its investments, its assets or its equity.2.1 MEASUREMENT OF FINANCIAL PERFORMANCEAccording to empiric studies, accounting measures provide most of the time positive correlations mingled with CSR and financial performance. (Cochran and Wood, 1994 Waddock and carve, 1997 Preston and O Bannon, 1997 Stanwick and Stanwick, 1998 Balabanis, Hugh and Jonathan, 1998, Moore, 2001 Rufetal, 2001). In addition, these measures from the accounts have the advantage of providing a more relevant measure of economic performance of the company and predict a more reliable the possible link betwixt CSR and financial performance. On the other hand, the stock market measures have the advantage of being less prone to managerial manipulation. Especially since they represent scores of investors on the business ability to start out economic benefits (Mc Guire et al, 1988). However, these variables are evaluated specific investor and does not allow to reveal the economic reality of the business (Ullmann, 1985), the results that emerge from studies using measures such as stock market are mixed, Markovitz, (1972) found a positive kin, Vance (1975) proves otherwise, and Buchotz Alexander (1978) found a weak correlation or no. Griffin and Mahon (1997) stress that results from market-related measures are in the main negative and called for greater use of accounting measures. To better understand the financial performance and provide a more comprehensive or less of the latter, elevate research incorporating both measures at a time (Mc Guire, et al, 1988 Balabanis, Hugh and Jonathan, 1998, Moore, 2001 Seifert Maurras and Barktkus, 2003, 2004).4. SOCIETAL RESPONSIBILITY AND FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE4.1 CSR and financial performance theoretical approaches4.1.1 The existence of a race between CSR and financial performanceThe theoretical approaches to corporate social responsibility are essentially based on the current contract philosopher s and sociological neo-institutionalism. They specially questioned the compatibility between market logic and the goal of maximum profit that underpin the economic rationale of the business and societal concerns such as sustainable development, intergenerational equity, the general interest which are purposes prior to appearing foreign or contrary to the entrepreneurial logic. In other words, the exercise of social responsibility of business is it an hopeless synthesis between the collective demands long-term expectations and short-term private? The theoretical basis is between 2 opposite poles on one side, the neoclassical theories, based on market efficiency, reject any idea of social responsibility of business other than making profit for its shareholders (Friedman, 1970). On the other, theories that mobilize a teleological principle and argue that there is a moral responsibility of policy makers towards future generations and a large number of societal problems. However, the only approach moralistic-ethical is not sufficient to illuminate the strategic behavior of firms in the societal area because it does not understand the motivations of corporate behavior. In this approach, stakeholders influence policy decisions of leaders and they are accountable to them about how they took into account their expectations.4.2 The stakeholder speculationFrom the 1980s, the theory of stakeholders (Stakeholders theory) is gradually accepted as a framework to further specify the groups vis--vis what the enterprise is (or should exercise) its societal responsibilities. The work of Freeman (1984) popularized this theory by proposing to define as stakeholder all persons or groups who are likely to affect and / or be affected by the have of the strategy of undertaking. The theory of stakeholder theory is now the most frequently mobilized both by researchers as actors in the business. She entered the company at the heart of a set of descents with partners who are not onl y shareholders (Shareholders), but players interested in or affected by the activities and business decisions. The stakeholder theory is not exempt from a normative vision and ethics but it seeks to integrate economic goals it states that cooperation contracts establish trust between the firm and its stakeholders and provides a competitive advantage the company. One might approve whether the inclusion of stakeholder expectations is not rather the result of traditional rules of management that the outcome of a deliberative process of integrating moral principles.Despite its omnipresence in all the literature on corporate social responsibility, this theory remains ambiguous about its theoretical basis and presents a number of limitations. On the one hand, it is part of a relational representation of the organization based on fair contracts that involve conflicts of interest may be resolved by ensuring a maximization of the interests of each group. On the other hand, it would be unre alistic to consider a comprehensive consideration of all potential stakeholders. The rationality of leaders is unavoidably limited by the urgency of the problems, pressures and randomness systems available to them that they decided to put in place. A first theoretical approach suggests that the company is more successful socially it is more efficient economically and financially. Instead, the company testament be more economically efficient and less it will be socially. Finally, beyond these two extreme views, it is possible to consider the assumptions of positive and negative synergy that cross the different conceptual foundations. With these assumptions also added a generic assumption of neutrality of interactions Gond, 2001) and anticipate a more complex relationship.5. CSR and financial performance Many theoretical explanationsThe theoretical explanations to clarify the nature of the relationship between societal and financial performance are numerous. They can be organized into three distinct categories explanations postulating the existence of linear relationships between these two constructs, explanations suggesting no link between the two constructs, and at long last explanations assume the existence of nonlinear relationships between these two variables.5.1 The models suggest a positive link between CSR and performanceTwo theoretical models support the idea of a positive impact of CSR on financial performance (Social Impact Hypothesis) and the assumption of funds available as excess resources available to discretionary managers or Organizational Slack (Available Fund Hypothesis). According to the guesswork of positive social impact, companies with a high level of CSR demonstrate their ability to master the implicit costs and negative externalities of the organization and report to stakeholders and the quality of their management. The theory of stakeholders (Stakeholders theory) that establishes the hypothesis of the influence of social practice s, has created a vast literature on the interaction between CSR and firm performance (Freeman, 1984, Cornell and Shapiro, 1987 Ullmann, 1985, Clarkson 1995, Donaldson and Preston, 1995) Satisfaction with the business objectives of stakeholders promotes the improvement of economic and financial performance (Freeman, 1984).The second model, that of Organizational Slack addresses the link between social performance and economic performance by proposing the idea that this is not the social responsibility that is the condition for obtaining a high level financial performance but, instead, the level of financial performance which allows the company to engage in socially responsible actions. Mc Guire et al, (1988) reported that financial performance could improve the level of social performance and their work has been partly confirmed those by Preston et al, (1991). The profitability of the business differential is then a condition of social behavior Kraft and Hadges (1990) have shown tha t excess resources and the attitude of managers towards society strongly influence the level of responsibility social enterprises.5.2 The models suggest a negative relationship between CSR and financial performanceUnlike the two previous(prenominal) models, others say that companies realize the best social performance are also those with the worst economic performance and vice versa in this spirit, a negative relationship between societal performance and financial performance dominates. The literature suggests two models that assume a negative relationship between CSR and performance, distinguished by the nature of causality assumed. The first model Trade-Off Hypothesis or assumptions arbitration assumes that the inclusion of corporate social responsibility involves extra financial costs resulting thence a competitive disadvantage (Friedman, 1962, 1970). In this perspective, any move away from socially responsible leaders of their goal of maximizing net (Aupperle, Carroll and Ha tzfeld, 1985). Drucker (1984, p.58) states that making a profit is fundamentally incompatible with the social responsibility of business5.3 The models suggest a positive or negative synergyThe typology developed by Preston and OBannon (1997) suggests two hypotheses that are based on different theoretical approaches outlined above. Indeed, in the context of a comprehensive model explaining it is possible to envisage a virginal circle (positive synergy) a high level of social performance leads to improved financial performance that provides the opportunity to reinvest in social actions responsible (Waddock and Graves, 1997). In contrast, a low level of societal performance led to a decline in financial performance limits, therefore, socially responsible investment (negative synergy).5.4 The models suggest a missing linkThe conceptual contributions of Mc Williams and Siegel (2001) lead Gond (2001) to complete the typology of Preston and O Bannon (1997) by formulating the hypothesis of no link between the two dimensions. Indeed, Mc Williams and Siegel (2001) propose a model of fork out and demand for social responsibility that helps explain the lack of consensus results obtained by empirical academic studies. According to them, there is a supply and demand for social responsibility, in a standard micro, who led each of them to invest socially to meet the demand of stakeholders. Market equilibrium cancels costs and profits generated by successively supply of social responsibility. This approach leads to a hypothesis of neutrality of interactions between social performance and financial performance.5.5 The models suggest a more complex relationshipThe results obtained by Bowman and Haire (1975) led Moore (2001) also refine the typology of Preston and OBannon (1997) and the hypothesis of positive relationship between more complex two-dimensional. Indeed, Bowman and Haire (1975) but also, more recently, Barnett and Salomon (2003) showed a non-linear U-shaped inverte d between social performance and financial performance, indicating an optimum level beyond which socially responsible investment longer improves financial performance. The multiplicity of theoretical hypotheses advanced to explain the nature of interactions between CSR and financial performance has led to develop empirical tests to define the conditions of validity of the various mechanisms invoked..6. CSR and financial performance empirical approachesClarification of the economic impact of CSR has always been a major concern in the field of study on the relationship between business and society. It is therefore not surprising that empirical work on this issue have been really numerous, there were in 2007 more than 160 empirical studies on the subject. This work focused on the nature of interactions between the firms ability to achieve a high level of CSR and financial performance by studying the interactions between on the one hand, social performance (or societal) Company (CSR) a nd, secondly, its financial performance (FP). These interactions have been studied mainly through two levels of analysis we will present successivelyMany publications over the last twenty years have highlighted the link between social responsibility and financial performance of the company. But these studies show conflicting results do not establish clearly the existence of a positive or negative relationship between social responsibility and financial firms (Preston and OBannon, 1997 Griffin and Mahon, 1997 Mac Williams and Siegel , 2001, Margolis and Walsh, 2002). The lack of theoretical foundation and conceptual studies, lack of uniformity in evaluation of social responsibility and financial and methodological shortcomings found explain the poor results obtained. Studies most recent research (Griffin and Mahon, 1997 Roman Hayibor and Agle, 1999, Margolis and Walsh, 2003) found a slight advantage for the detection of positive links between societal performance and financial perfor mance . The synthesis of the literature identifies 122 studies published between 1971 and 2001 with an accelerating pace of recently published (35 studies between 1997 and 2001) and far (2007) on more than 160 empirical studies on this subject, but also this research were sometimes biased in the direction of the illumination of a positive relationship. For example, the 122 education cubic decimetre and claim a positive association between social responsibility and financial performance twenty get mixed results, twenty seven indicate no ties and seven observed a negative relationship.6.1 The hypothesis of impact-social Social Impact HypothesisAccording to (Freeman 1984, Donaldson and Preston, 1995), stakeholder theory has explained the origin of the favorable influence social behavior on financial performance. Indeed, CSR is an indicator of the ability of business to effectively meet the demands of various stakeholders. This has consequently regained their confidence and thus improv e profitability (Balabanis, Hugh and Jonathan, 1998). Waddock and Graves (1997) speak of Good Management Theory that there is a high correlation between good management practice and CSR, simply because an improvement in social activity entails a special relationship with Key Stakeholders Groups (Freeman, 1984), implying more performance. In addition, a review of empirical literature confirms a positive relationship between the two components (Mc Guire et al, 1988 Waddock and Graves, 1997 Preston and OBannon, 1997 Verschoor, 1998, Stanwick and Stanwick, 1998 Mc Williams and Siegel, 2000, Moore 2001, Ruf et al, 2001, Orlitsky, 2001 Kohers and Simpson, 2002). Allouche and Laroche (2005) identified 82 research, 75 of them have found a positive link, while Margolis and Walsh (2003) who counted 54 out of 127 studies confirming the positive relationship. Hence our first hypothesis H1 Social responsibility has a positive impact on financial performance.6.2 The Trade-Off HypothesisThis hypot hesis refers to the classical theory of Friedman (1962, 1970) that CSR is an investment that increases costs and takes place at the expense of financial performance. For example a decision to invest in equipment acquisition environmentally friendly while other competitors do not, can generate a competitive disadvantage. Hence the reduction in profitability which may cause discontent among shareholders. This finding was also confirmed by Aupperle et al, (1985), the authors conclude that social activities such as donation to charity, environmental protection and community development dissipate more resources and generate additional costs, which disadvantages the company against its competitors less engaged in social actions. Searches return the negative relationship to abnormalities in particular methodological tools to measure financial performance. The negative association is due to the use of market variables as a measure of financial performance (Griffin and Mahon, 1997). In reali ty, the number of studies that lead to a negative relationship is very small, Margolis and Walsh (2003) identify 127 studies dealing with the subject in question, and they found that only 8 of them expect a negative correlation between the two dimensions. of where our second hypothesis H2 The social responsibility has a negative impact on financial performance.6.3 The lack of connection between the two dimensionsSome authors suggest that CSR and financial performance are both built entirely separate. Ullmann (1995) emphasizes that the link from a pure coincidence. The correlation is generated, according to the author, by intervening variables that occur in an unpredictable behavior and that link the two constructs. Meanwhile, Waddock and Graves (1997) show that the methodological problems in operationalizing CSR tend to obscure the link. A multitude of empirical studies have provided no link between the two dimensions (Aupperle et al, 1985 Fogler and Nutt, 1975 Abbot and Monsen, 19 79, Freedman and Jaggi, 1986 ONeil, Mark Saunders and Carthey 1989 Seifert, Maris and Barkus, 2004, Graves and Waddock, 1999). Others state that the link is weak or nonexistent (Alexander and Bchholz 1978, Cochran and Wood, 1984 Krauz and Pava, 1996 Berman et al, 1999 Balabanis, Hugh and Jonathan, 1998, Seifert and Morris Barktkus , 2003). Griffin and Mahon (1997), Balaban, Hugh and Jonathan (1998) found that the results are inconclusive the variables selected do not distinguish between successful firms and inefficient firms. In this context, our third hypothesis H3 There is no link between social responsibility and financial performance.7. CSR and financial performance The effect of control variablesResearch has shown that the relationship between CSR and financial performance is not absolute, it must take into account the weight of the elements of each company (Ullmann, 1985 Waddock and Graves, 1997) and are likely to moderate the relationship between the two constructs. These cha racteristics are operationalized as control variables.7.1 The effect riskThe risk is variable, with several studies in different contexts have shown that it controls the relationship between the two dimensions. The argument assumes the risk that companies have a low risk to commit advantage in social activities, and vice versa. Companies with low risk have a stable performance model, and therefore, this situation seems very conducive to investment in social activities (Roberts, 1992). Aupperle et al, (1985) postulate that firms more socially responsible are identified as being better managed and risks are minimal. This finding is especially approved by the study of Mc Guire et al, (1988) ONeil, Mark Saunders and Carthey (1989), Waddock and Graves (1997), Graves and Waddock (1999). In contrast, Aupperle et al, (1985) found a correlation, positive correlation between CSR and risk accounting, and negative but not significant between CSR and market risk.7.2 The effect sizeThe argument f or the size stipulated that organizations undertake major advantage in social actions small organizations do not give importance to social activity (Waddock and Graves, 1997). Burke et al, (1986) argue that companies, as and as they grow, give more attention to external factors and better meet the demands of stakeholders, Stanwick and Stanwick (1998) found that size, measured by the passel of sales and total assets is positively related to CSR. Mc Guire et al (1988) find a positive but not significant between CSR and the size measured by total assets.7.3 The effect sectorThe sector as designed in the literature is a moderating effect of CSR and PF relationship, eg the extent of the consideration of environmental responsibility by a chemical company is not the same a financial institution. A plurality of researchers took into account the control variable as in include Waddock and Graves, 1997, Griffin and Mahon, 1997, Graves and Waddock, 1999 Balabanis, Hugh and Jonathan, 1998, McWi lliams and Siegel 2000, Moore 2001, Ruf et al, 2001 Seifer, Morris and Barktkus, 2003.2004.8. theoretical model9. METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCHThe objective of empirical research is to empirically test our research hypotheses and the theoretical model proposed. In order to test the validity of our assumptions on a sample drawn from all Tunisian companies, we proceeded by two steps the first is to measure the perception of Tunisian companies to the concept of CSR and then study the impact of this latest financial performance. Through our research, we chose the method of direct interview, and for several reasons, we conduct a field investigation, by adopting the technique of direct investigation on the basis of a questionnaire. The survey covered a sample of 30 Tunisian companies selected from different sectors.9.1 The racing shell of measurement of CSR predictorFor measurement of CSR, we will adopt that developed by Maignan et al (1999), which forms part of the work on measuring social pe rformance. This scale operationalizes the concept of social performance by measuring the dimensions of the construct. In fact, two major scales have been developed in this perspective The oldest is that of Aupperle, Carroll and Hatfield (1985) measuring the orientation of managers towards social responsibility, the latest and most complete is that of organizational citizenship Maignan et al. (1999), reused by Maignan and Ferrell (2001).These two instruments take over the traditional classification in four types of social responsibilities of Carroll (1979) economic, legal, ethical and discretionary or philanthropic organizations that are a reflection of society see the company actively engaged in its local environment and / or global defense of social causes and public interest.Regarding the scale of Aupperle et al (1985), it is intended to measure only the views of leaders on the relative importance of each of the four dimensions of social responsibility of business.While the scale of Maignan et al. (1999) is designed to gather perceptions of the social performance of the business stakeholders throughout the company (Maignan and Ferrell, 2001). Indeed, the scale was constructed from academic studies describing activities commonly accepted as citizens by the three main stakeholders ie employees, customers, stakeholders public. These authors manage this work, mainly to executives (Maignan et al 1999, Maignan and Ferrell, 2001) to have completed the questionnaire as relevant as the leaders and general information about the company cutting.Hence, our questionnaire has five dimensions are those of Carroll (1979), added an environmental dimension whose items are inspired by the Global Compact (1999). This choice is argued by the importance it attaches to the environment today, and the pressures that companies face to reflect the impact of its activities on the environment in which it operates, it is relevant namely the impact of the inclusion of the natural environm ent on the financial performance of Tunisian firms.